Modern technology Essay Example for Free

Modern applied science EssayTechnology has become a truly important part of our lives nowadays. During the past few years, technology has evolved in many ways and is probably without a doubt better than ever sooner. hatful are always trying to find whateverthing new that give improve our lives dramatically. Some of the creations that brook really changed our lives are the computer, telephone, profits and electronic mail, television, cell phone and express mail. E rattlingthing has a positive and a negative effect on our lives and so does technology. Technology may be really helpful but it can sometimes be very harmful.In our modern society, people cant see themselves without computers. Computers have evolved so practically during the past years. They used to be bulky, expensive and non very reliable machine but nowadays at that place are fast, small and affordable and nearly every family has a computer. With computers you can browse over the internet and look for information about a subject instead of having to do read books at the library or read the newspaper. Nowadays by and large everything is available on the internet. You can even do your Christmas shopping over the internet instead of having to spend a long time waiting at the malls. Electronic mails can be sent over a network and its much faster and takes up less time than to have to write a letter and then send it and the person would have to wait a day or more to get your letter. Cell phones are also very useful gadgets as people can reach you wherever you are. In case of emergency people can contact you even if youre not at home.When you have a computer you can just store your files on your hard drive and it can be retrieved at any time. Its also much easier to type something than to handwrite as if you make a mistake white-out doesnt have to be used as you can edit your whenever you want before printing it. Machines can also be programmed to answer the phone for you whenever your e not here or you dont want to take the call because youre too tired to do it. Technology has helped the NASA in various ways. They have discovered new planets, found out interesting facts about them like what are they made of or is there air and water on that planet. As you can see technology does have various advantages and it would be pretty much impossible to live without technology nowadays.Ever since the beginning, technology always had disadvantages. Althoughcomputers are very useful machines, hackers can enter your computer and access private information for example your bank note without you even noticing it. They can copy your password and later on use it to take money from your account without any permission. Computer viruses are also very dangerous as it can destroy your data completely and you may even have to buy a new computer afterwards as the damage cant be repaired.People are starting to lose their communication skills because most of the things are now done on th e computer. People who dont have enough knowledge in computers are having more and more trouble to find a good job even if they have other qualifications. In chat rooms, older people usually make young teenagers believe that theyre the same age as them and sometimes ask them to meet them at some place before kid-knapping them or doing something else that will harm them. These things show that technology has some disadvantages if it is used in a harmful way.Technology has some advantages and disadvantages. People should know what theyre doing and they should know how to protect themselves from hackers and harmful programs. Anti-viruses should be used as well as firewalls for protection. Before actually meeting someone that youve talked to over the internet you should be completely sure that he/she didnt lie to you because it could end up very badly for you. Teenagers should not always listen to the media because sometimes the media only tells you something so that they can make money out of it and in return you hardly gain anything. Technology has become part of our daily lives and the question is how far will technology go?

Pain Leads to Growth Essay Example for Free

Pain Leads to Growth Essay(Thesis Statement) In the Olive Ann Burns novel Cold Sassy Tree, Will homespun(predicate) grows from a somewhat thoughtless fourteen-year-old boy to a more mature and compassionate person. (SO 1) Initially, Will acts in a capricious manner, often hurting pot without really understanding the effect of his actions. (SO 2) However, when Will encounters some hurtful experiences and grows from them, he starts to see situations from a new perspective. (SO 3) Subsequently, Will evolves into someone who cares for others and learns to think for himself. (Concluding or transitional Sentence) Much growth occurs in Will because he realizes that there give be less hurt if people are more accepting of all(prenominal) other.(Transition + TS 1/SO 1) Early in his life, Will is somewhat of a prankster, not taking into consideration the feelings of the people he might be hurting. (Trans. + MS 1) In order to release his anger, Will often uses revenge. (C+Q) Grandpa Twe edy provokes such revenge when he does not allow Will to take the weight he catches off of the hook because it is Sunday. In retaliation, Will plans to give his Grandpa a hornet chase. Will recalls Giving him just long enough to get colonised good, he lets fly a rock and it hit that tin roof like a gunshot. Grandpa burst out of there in a horde of hornet He know Id done it (107). (Analysis) Will probably does not even care that his Grandpa Tweedy could get stung. Because he does not like him, his eudaemonia does not matter. Therefore, Will just evens things out. (Trans. + MS 2)Read more No Pain No Gain MeaningFurthermore, Will does not turn out a problem making up lies about others in order to get out of an uncomfortable situation. When Will goes on a camping trip with his friends, he feels as if he has to change the subject away from the controversial relationship between his Grandpa Blakeslee and his new young wife, Miss Love. Will chooses his Aunt Loma, a rival of his, to hu miliate I wasnt too worried about Aunt Loma. Those were whacking good stories, if I do say so myself Anyhow, it would be worthy a whipping to see Aunt Lomas face after she heard (184). Will not only praises his great ability to lie, but thinks that his punishment will be worth the pleasure he will get from seeing his aunt upset. He does not take into account how he would feel in her place or theembarrassment he may cause.Moreover, Will does not always seem to respect authority. For example, Will gets into a fight at develop with a mill boy, Hosie Roach, and his punishment is to chop wood for Mr. Billy Whisnant, a man ailing from rheumatism. Will takes this opportunity to defy authority and to show scorn for Mr. Whisnant What wed done, haw, and like I say it was my idea we had cut every stick exactly four inches too long for the Whisnants kitchen stove (267). Will does not take into account that Mr. Whisnant cannot chop wood for himself. Helping him would have been a kind and cha ritable thing to do. Instead, he feels that he is acting smart by finding a way to defy his punishment. Will does not try to be cruel he does not realize the impact that his actions can have on others. When he plays a joke on someone, makes up stories, or acts defiantly, he never looks at the situation from the other persons perspective.

The Defining Of Corruption In Governments Politics Essay

The Defining Of Corruption In G eachwherenments Politics EssayCorruption as a war cry is derived from the Latin word despoilus meaning to break up. The exercise of the word emphasizes the destructive perfume of putrescence on the fabric of society and the situations where federal agents and ordinary officers break the confidence entrusted in them Nicholls, Daniel, Polaine, Hatchard, (2006). Johnston, (2005) quoting the works of Nye, (1967) Heidenheinmer, (1970) Scott, (1972) Thompson, (1993) Thompson, (1995) Johnston, (1996) Philip, (1997) and Philip, (2002), stated that definitional issues of degeneration is a matter of long-running debate and in that respectfore it is everlastingly difficult to settle for any specific definition. He states that the vital role of the state is reflected in near definitions of depravity, and therefore agrees that corruption is conventionally understood, and referred to, as the private wealth seeking behaviour of roughone who represe nts the state and the public authority. It is the misuse of public visions by public authoriseds, for private gains. The working definition used by the World Bank, Transpargonncy International and others is that corruption is the abuse of public power for private take in (or profit). Another widely used description is that corruption is a transaction between private and public sector actors through which collective goods atomic number 18 illegitimately converted into private-regarding payoffs (Heidenheimer et al. 19896). This point is also emphasized by Rose-Ackerman, who says corruption exists at the inter spirit of the public and private sectors (Rose-Ackerman 1978). In Colin Nyes important definition, corruption is behaviour that deviates from the take inal duties of a public role (elective or appointive) because of private-regarding (personal, close family, private clique) wealth or status gains(Nye 1967416). Samuel houndington noted that where political opportunities are scarce, corruption occurs as people use wealth to buy power, and where stintingal opportunities are few, corruption occurs when political power is used to pursue wealth (Huntington 1968).Huntington (1968), Myrdal (1968) and Scott (1969), retrieves that corruption is approximately prevalent during the near intense phase of modernization of a farming and tends to decline with institutionalization of advanced democracy (see also Pavarala, 1996). It is however argued that this view cannot exempt the prevalence of corruption in advanced industrial democracies because there is now increasing evidence of political corruption and systematic mould peddling in the US and UK (Amick, 1976 Drewry, 1977 Pinto-Duschinsky, 1977 Benson, 1978 Ashworth, 1981 Johnston, 1982 Doig, 1984 Etzioni, 1984).For the purpose of this dissertation, corruption volition be defined as the use of public office for private gain provided by Rose-Ackerman (1975, 1978), Becker and Stigler (1974), Klitgaard (19 88, 1991), Shleifer and Vishny (1993), Myint, U, 2000 Johnson D.T Zimring F.E, 2005) and enhancer International. This in other words, involves the use of formal incline, rank or status by an office bearer for his personal benefit.2.3. Forms of CorruptionThere are different forms of corruption, Pedersen and Johannsen (2008) classification by typology, Roebuck and Barker (1974) Heidenheimer, (1989) Alemann (1995) Punch (200) Tserndoodov (2001) and Miller (2003). According to Shah, (2008) corruption is not manifested in one single form. Some scholars base corruption as universal gravitational constant corruption, petty corruption, sporadic corruption, systemic corruption or active and passive corruption base on the stages and magnitude of the malaise, while slightly like Robinson (2004 p.3) categorized corruption into three main forms incidental ( several(prenominal)), institutional (for example, the police service) and systemic (societal). However, irrespective of the classifi cation or level of the phenomenon, Vargas-Hernandez (2009), like many other scholars, believe that corruption can be in form of any of the following debasery, collusion, embezzlement of public currency and theft, sendup, extortion, abuse of discretion, favouritism, clientelism, nepotism, and others. This can be presented in a pictorial form as shown in figure (1) below.BriberyCronyismEmbezzlementExtortionForms of CorruptionNepotismConflict of InterestFavouritism anticFigure 1. Forms of CorruptionIn various forms listed in figure (1) above, corrupt activities such as fraud and embezzlement can be undertaken by an official alone and with out(p) involvement of a second party. While others such as bribery, extortion and influence peddling involve two parties. There must be a giver and taker in a corrupt deal. The two party type of corruption can arise under a variety of circumstances either in public or private official function.2.3.1 Bribery Bribery is defined as the payment for a c orrupt act (Zimring Johnson, 2005). A bribery corrupt act is always perpetuated by two or more individuals. Bribery requires collusion between a private citizen and a public employee (Morris, 1991). Albrecht, Albrecht, Albrecht Zimbelman (2009) says bribery involves the offering, giving, receiving, or soliciting of anything of value to influence and official act. According to Myint, (2000), bribes as one of several two party corrupt act offence, involves amongst others, regime contracts to determine who gets what contract and the terms of the contract presidency benefits like subsidies for importation, permits for explorations and purchase of privatized government corporations reduction in taxable fees like import duties, custom duties, utility fees, electricity fees and income taxes for some(prenominal) furrow and private individuals, consequently minify government r purgeue (See also Rose-Ackerman 2005). It is also argued that bribery can speed up the wheels of bureaucracy more smoothly and speedily (Myint, 2000) as puff up as influence the outcome of a legal and regulatory process. A legal definition can be found in (Nicholls, Daniel, Polaine Hatchard, 2006 p. 18).While some theorists like Leff (1964), Leys (1965), Huntington (1968) and Mendez Sepulveda (2006), see bribery under the greasing the wheels hypothesis as payment that is beneficial in alleviating the distortions caused by ill-functioning institutions and thus reducing cost associated with queues (Lui, 1985) (see also Rose-Ackerman 2005, pp. 15-16), it has been open that bribery constitute not only a threat to some countries, but a threat to the future of global security. Osborne (1997) argues that bribery undermines governments by reducing income from taxes, duties, and fees, while increasing the cost of service delivery. He put ined that bribery destroys competition and thus companies that bribe their way to a contract or waiver for exploration, scores their prices to cover for the bribes. This creates a spiralling effect that distorts government policies as a result of the personal gain to be derived, subvert company cultures, destabilizes society due to resource diversion, low productivity and making controls in powerful and invariably constituting a threat to global security as a result of drug trafficking, organised offense and terrorism. The most widely quoted bribery statistic is the World Banks worldwide estimate of $1 trillion per year with the total cost of corruption estimated at more than 5% of global GDP (US $2.6 trillion), Cleveland, Favo, Frecka Owens (2010) and the economic effects and ethicality of bribery affirm been discussed by literally hundreds of sources including Dalton (2006), Gray and Kaufmann (1988), Nichols (1999), and Shaw (2000).2.3.2. Fraud Another common corrupt practice is fraud. Fraud is an act of misrepresentation or deception by way of charging for goods or services that was never delivered, changing the specifications or timing on goods and services and their spill dates, and concealment of funds paid as fees or custom duties. Customs fraud for instance can be the under or over paygrade of the value of goods or misclassification and underpayment of taxes. Fraud is the use of misleading information to induce someone to turn over the belongings voluntarily. According to Albrecht et al (2009 p 7), fraud is a generic term, and embraces all multifarious means which human ingenuity can devise, which are resorted to by one individual, to get an advantage over some other by false representationincludes surprise, trickery, cunning and unfair ways by which another is cheated. Fraud is mostly expressed in the form of the Fraud Triangle depicting the three elements of pressure, opportunity and rationalization (Albrecht, Wernz Williams, 1995). In the public sector therefore, bureaucrats and their private collaborators tend to defraud the public by way of contract inflation, white elephant projects, and lo w quality service delivery. In the private sector, fraud is classified variously as employee fraud, vendor fraud, customer fraud, management fraud, investment scams and others (Albrecht et al, 2009). However, the focus of this research is on public sector fraud.2.3.3. Embezzlement and Theft These are the form of corruption that is characterized by the taking or conversion of funds, assets or other valuables for private gain. These forms of corruption involve the abuse of public trust on the asset entrusted to the individual. According to Green (2002 p. 99), embezzlement is a crime of specific intent in which a person fraudulently misappropriates or misapplies something that has been legally entrusted to that person but which he or she does not own, thereby usurping the legal owners control For instance, an official can bump around with a contractor who is engaged to perform some service and embezzle some of the fund meant for the contract and encourage the contractor to provide a subscript service to be able to recoup the original cost of the contract. Embezzlement therefore is the misappropriation of funds legally entrusted to an official in their formal position as an agent, guardian or trustee. According to Albrecht et al, (2009) embezzlement is a common type of occupational fraud in both private and public sectors. They posit that employees (or officials) can steal cash, supplies and other assets or establish dummy companies or vendors to pay for goods and services that are not actually delivered. It is however argued (Green, 2002) that determining just what constitute embezzlement is sometimes difficult due to legal interpretations of the difference between embezzlement and offense of criminal conversion.2.3.4. Conflict of Interest Conflict of take occurs when an employee (public official) has an undisclosed economic or personal interest in a transaction that will be undertaken by his/her brass section. According to Albrecht et al, (2009), conflict of interest involves the sudor of influence by the employee at the detriment of the organization for personal gain or to benefit a friend or relative even though he/she may not received a pecuniary benefit from the act. The conundrum to the conflict of interest is a situation where a public official may have to decline engaging competent and qualified person/organization for the supply of goods or services simple because he/she has a vested economic interest in the supplying organization. However, Albrecht et al, posits that to be classified as a conflict of interest, scheme, the officials interest in the transaction must be undisclosed, and thus the organization is not aware of his/her divided loyalty.2.3.5. Cronyism It refers to favorable treatment of friends and associates in the distribution of resources and positions without regard to their objective qualifications and professionalism.2.3.6. Favoritism Generally, favouritism, nepotism and clientelism involve abuses of discreti on. Such abuses, however, are governed not by the self-interest of an official but the interests of someone linked to him or her through membership of a family, political party, tribe, religious or other group. If an individual bribes an official to hire him or her, the official acts in self-interest. If a corrupt official hires a relative, he or she acts in exchange for the less tangible benefit of advancing the interests of family or the specific relative involved (nepotism). The favouring of, or discriminating against, individuals can be based on a wide range of group characteristics race, religion, geographical factors, political or other affiliation, as well as personal or organizational relationships, such as friendship or membership of clubs or associations. Favoritism takes place when one favors or prefers acquaintances, friends and family over strangers. It becomes corruption when public (and private sector) officials unfairly distribute positions and resources to colleagu es.2.3.7. Nepotism Nepotism is used to indicate a form of favoritism that involves family relationships. It describes situations in which a person exploits his or her power and authority to procure jobs or other favors for relatives2.3.8. Extortion It is the illegal demand or receipt of property or money through the use of force or threat. According to Morris (1991), extortion in contrast to bribery, is a is a situation where the public official influences the demeanour of a citizen through the use of negative sanctions as a threat further to abuse authority to induce cooperation. This is also widely referred to as graft.2.4. historical Context of corruption in Nigeria and Britain2.4.1. NigeriaA comparative perspective on corruption provides insight about the role of this peculiar form of crime in various cultures and stages of development (Johnson D.T. Zimring F.E, 2007). The global perception of Nigeria on corruption should therefore be seen in its proper historical context by undertaking a comparative review of the historical evolution of the country and the colonial legacy (Olaleye-Oruene, 2007). Olaleye-Oruene argues that an examination of the Nigerian traditional business ethos prior to contact with Europeans, especially the British, indicates that corruption is not a cultural norm of the Nigerian people pre-colonial. In the Nigerian culture, an inducement by one party for the purpose of gaining an advantage over a competitor would be paramount to an insult and indeed an effrontery to the party awarding the contract. However, there is little documentation on African and Nigerian commercial and administrative transactions before the advent of colonialism to support this believe. It is therefore on this note that the considered base for any empirical write-up on corruption in Nigeria can only be done from the colonial era.In the 1700 1800s, corruption especially political corruption (Willis 2002, p.151) was seen as a major problem in Britain only partl y addressed by electoral reforms in the 19th century and thus during the Balkanization of the African continent that took place in Berlin in 1884-1885, the British which took control of the Northern and Southern Nigeria, imported its legal system, education and economic culture (Olaleye-Oruene, 2007). According to Olaleye-Oruene, European values endorses corruption in view of the common and political and corporate corruption found in many countries both eastern and western, with Germany, Britain, Italy, France, Belgium and the Netherlands in the West and therefore the sub-culture of corruption is seen as the acceptable face of capitalism and any form of commercial transactions with the West, notably with multinationals at the time. Foreign-sponsored bribery tends to be held by many observers in developing countries as the most significant contributing factor to corruption (Andvig Fjeldstad, 2000). To many commentators like Bloom, (2010) Western companies constitute the main culpri ts of the corruption syndrome in most developing countries. Quoting Transparency International, he said that the most corrupt industries are arms, construction and oil, and many western companies are helping to line peoples pockets illegally by selling wrong equipment, and dams and roads are built in the wrong place for no better reason other than the politicians can get their kick backs. See also Tanzi, Davoodi, (1997) Hunt and Laszlo, (2005) and Svensson, (2003). This is the situation Nigeria found itself when the country was amalgamated between the south and the north in 1914. In attempting to tackle the menace of the scourge as been treated in Britain in the earlier 18th century, the then British Colonial Administration promulgated the Nigerian Criminal figure in 1916, Ch. XII, with sections 98 and 116 dealing with corruption. The Code made it an offence corruptly to give or receive any gift or other advantage as an inducement to influence the take aim of any . . . officer o r servant of any public body as defined in the code. It is punishable with a maximum of 14 old age imprisonment and/or fine (Olaleye-Oruene, T. 2007, p.232).However, fitting as the buck shifting may be, the Nigerian perpetrators of corruption or pen-robbers (as they are euphemistically known) have superseded the Europeans in the art of corruption by making it the lifestyle of the body politic. Corruption is no longer confined to government contracts where the perpetrators share the loot of the graft, but percolates to every nook and cranny of the civil service and local government, political hierarchy, both civil and array, and even the church. It is widely noted that the judiciary is tainted by trials colonized with bribes . . . universities are tarnished by the trade in diplomas (also bribery as means of gaining entry into universities) . . . the nobility has been mocked by the sale of chieftaincy titles . . . In other words, the bulk of public officials are expected to be bribe d for performing the duty which constitutes the terms of contract of their employment. For instance, messengers are regarded as powerful because they control the movement of files and could bury the files if anyone fails to bribe them (Olaleye-Oruene, 2007 p.234). According to BBCs Caroline Duffield in Lagos, extortion of civilians and bribery of police is a fact of life in Nigeria often taking place in public and in broad daylight (http//www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-11001624) and the former Chairman of the frugal and Financial Crimes Commission, Nuhu Ribadu while speaking with the US Congress Financial Services Committee in May 2009, state that Nigeria have lost about $440 billion to corruption since independence in 1960. The interrogative mood therefore is where did Nigeria get it wrong? Can the country continue to blame the British Colonialist considering that Britain has shed off its corruption tag of the 19th century?Several reasons have been adduced for this state of aff airs such as prolonged military dictatorship lack of political will to tackle corruption lack of national plan and the cultural tolerance of corruption and corrupt leadership and the absence of enforcement of the law against corruption. Corruption in public life in Nigeria manifested itself in the 1950s to 1960s with the first penal interrogation on the African Continental Bank (ACB) and Nnamdi Azikiwe affairs with a Justice Strafford Forster-Sutton commission in 1957 the Justice G.B. Coker Commission in 1962 to look into the activities of the then Western theatrical role government led by Chief Awolowo and the National Investment and Property company. However, it is widely believed that the malaise started to become a public way of life during the military regimes of General Gown, (Ministry of Defence cement importation scandal), General Obasanjo, (Missing N2.8 Billion from the Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation) and the subsequent promulgation of Decree No.11 of 1976 (Publi c officers Protection Against False Accusation) seen as the arming of corrupt government officials with immunity and a carte blanche to be above the law (Nwaobi, G.C. 2004). From the Military administration of Gen. Obasanjo in 1976 to President Obasanjo in 1999, there have been many looting of the Nigerian Commonwealth by its leaders and their cronies and such funds deposited in foreign bank accounts that may or may not ever be recovered again. The corruption activities of the Shagari civilian regime and the dictatorial military regimes of Buhari, Babangida, Abacha and even Abdulsalam are well documented in Nigeria (Nwaobi, 2004).The clear of this dissertation will not permit a detail review of the corruption cases in these regimes however, a table highlighting some of the looted funds is attached as appendix 1.2.4.2. Great Britain.Concern about corruption is as old as the history of government. In 350 BCE, Aristotle suggested in The Politics, To protect the treasury from being de frauded, let all money be issued openly in front of the whole city, and let copies of the accounts be deposited in various wards. The UK has widely been seen as the archetype of the non-corrupt industrial democracy (Adonis, 1997). However, a look into the UK history in the last few centuries will portray a society once prevalent with all forms of corruption. Willis (2002, p.151) quoting Lever 1971 and Denning 1981, stated that the court of King James I of England was once described in the following termsthis is a tale of extravagance, waste, corruption and vice unprecedented sums of money were squandered Titles and government offices were bought and sold. Through Monopolies, tax-farming and appropriation of public land for private purposes the entire national economy was fleeced by parasitic rulers and their croniesAlso quoting Williams (1960), Willis said that corruption was the major avenue of securing election to parliament, forming government and staying in government. Theref ore buying a seat in parliament out of your own resources was almost the only mode by which parliament was accessible with honour to those who had no family connection or local patron.The Anti-Bribery spell (Last Determination work out 1729, 2 Geo II c 24) called an Act for the more effectual preventing bribery and corruption in election of members to serve in Parliament The Place Act 1742 (15 Geo II c 22) and Burkes Place Act 1782 (22 Geo III c 45) were some of the early measures taken between the century 1729 to 1832 to curb bribery and corruption in the British political and administrative system. In Britain, the practice of corruption was so rampant in the late 19th century as to necessitate the jurisprudence of a private members bill, the Public Bodies Corrupt Practices Act 1889, in order to implement the recommendation made in 1888 in an interim report by the Royal Commission which investigated various malpractices by the Metropolitan Board of Works. In the decade either s ide of the First World War a time of corruption scandals seriously clouded the government of Prime Minister David Lloyd George (Adonis, 1997)In the last half century however, Britain invariably scores highly in indices on integrity in public life despite evidence of underlying and persistent corruption (Doig, 1984, 1995, 1996) as quoted in Doig, (2004). Evidence of bribery and the misuse of public office for partisan or personal benefit has invariably been treated as episodic and personalized. When identified, such as the Poulson scandal of the 1970s the cash -for- question scandals in the House of Commons in the 1990s the corruption at the local government council levels like the Lambeth borough council in 1993 and the recent Expenses scandals involving MPs in 2009, cases have been subject to investigations that have dealt with the offenders while confirming the general integrity of institutions and the robustness of the procedures involved in dealing with the offences. At the sam e time, British political and administrative life has pragmatically so ordered its affairs that the need for corruption has been widely minimized. Thus members of the executive and senior civil servants are unlikely even to be offered, let alone accept, bribes from government contractors while in office and from the latter half of the nineteenth, into the early twentieth century, political and administrative leaderships were able to recruit measures that precluded membership of Parliament as a means of personal profit in return for government support required verbal disclosure of financial interests curbed payments for honours disengaged MPs and ministers from the spoils and patronage systems that dominated traditional politics introduced constraints on civil servants moving to the private sector outlawed voter bribery, and introduced anticorruption legislation for both public and private sectors (Doig, 2003). While it should be remembered that corruption and misconduct did not nec essarily disappear during this period, allegations invariably provoked some form of official inquiry that was often used as a vehicle for some general statement of the principles of conduct. It is therefore not surprising that Britain is rated highly above Nigeria in the Transparency Internationals corruption perception index.2.5. Theoretical Empirical Works on CorruptionCorruption generally has attracted a great deal of attention in both academic and non-academic circles as reflected through an increased number of studies devoted to the topics. There is a growing body of theoretical and empirical studies within the economics literary works examining the factors contributing to corruption and corruptibility within the public service. This will be looked into as below2.5.1. Theories on CorruptionExisting theories fail to differentiate various forms of corruption. Morris, (1991 p. 10), states that most theoretical arguments posit a major causal agent as producing corruption non real ly specifies what type of corruption may result or what specific factors may relate to different corrupt acts This could be as a result of the difficult nature of defining what really constitute corruption. According to deGraaf (2007), most definitions of corruption are focused on loving constructivism and thus it is based on what is considered as corruption at a certain place and at a particular time. In his studies of corruption in the Western countries, he theorized six causes of corruption which will also be considered belowPrincipal ingredient Theory One of the standard frameworks used in the theoretical analysis of corruption is the principal-agent model. A principal can be a person or an organization, in the case of this research, a government. The model holds that on behalf of the principal, the agent interacts with a client and thus may commit corruption if in his analysis, the benefits outweighs the costs. Using this model researchers like (Bardhan, 1997 Klitgaard, 1988 Rose-Ackerman, 1978) have investigated the trade-offs between the expected costs and benefits of corrupt acts. The reasons for the considered economic benefit may include such as lower wages (Becker and Stigler, 1974 Chand and Moene, 1999 Mookherjee and Png, 1995), social welfare (Becker and Stigler, 1974 Khalil and Lawarree, 1995 Mookherjee and Png, 1995) and greed (de Graaf, 2007). The Principal-Agent theory considers corruption at the micro-model and the agent makes his/her decisions based on a benefit versus costs and thus if the agent chooses not to be corrupt, they receive a payoff that is the sum of their regular pay plus the moral satisfaction of not being a corrupt. According to Klitgaard as quoted by Chan (2000), the cost depends on his/her own ethical, cultural and religious standards influence of peers and colleagues the size and magnitude of the bribe and responsibilities to the principal.Economic Rent and corruption equation All economic agents are maximizing their in dividual utility that is personal welfare (wealth). Therefore, selfish interests of economic agents are the basic motive for economic transactions between them. A common thread in these models is that the government is led by a benevolent dictator (the principal), who aims to motivate government officials (agents) to act with integrity in the use of public resources (see Banfield 1975 Becker 1968, 1983 Becker and Stigler 1974 Klitgaard 1988, 1997 Rose-Ackerman 1975, 1978). Resources are allocated to the activities that provide the greatest returns on investment (an allocation decision). Rent by economic definition is a factor of income above the war-ridden returns (opportunity costs) of the factor and thus because rent appropriations will maximize individual utility (welfare), economic agents are engaged in the rent-seeking process, the process of creation and distribution (appropriation) of rent. theoretically speaking, rent can be created in a few distinctive ways, but in reality the most significant rent generator is government intervention through the violation of free market operations by way of regulations. In his classical Corruption Equation, Kiltgaard, (1998) postulates thatCorruption Equation C=R+D AWhere C= Corruption,R= Economic RentD= Discretionary powersA= Accountability.In the equation, Kiltgaard posits that Corruption (C) will exist if more opportunities for Economic Rent ( R) exist in a country and that the greater the discretionary powers (D) granted to administrators (bureaucrats, leaders, politicians etc) the more the chances of corruption. However, the equation states that the more administrators are held Accountable (A) for their actions, the less will be corruption. This is designated by the minus sign in front of A.Stated differently, the equation tells us that a fertile ground for growth of a soundly corrupt system will emerge in a country if it satisfies the following three conditionsIt has a large number of laws, rules, regulation s, and administrative orders to restrict business and economic activities and thereby creates huge opportunities for generating economic rent, and especially if these restrictive measures are complex and opaque and applied in a selective, secretive, inconsistent and non-transparent wayAdministrators are granted large discretionary powers with respect to interpreting rules, are given a lot of freedom to decide on how rules are to be applied, to whom and in what manner they are to be applied, are vested with powers to amend, alter, and rescind the rules, and even to supplement the rules by invoking new restrictive administrative measures and procedures andThere are no effective mechanisms and institutional arrangements in the country to hold administrators accountable for their actions.The Public/Rational Choice Theory Like most white-collar crimes, corruption has been seen as a crime of rational choice where the causal chain is that of an individual making a rational decision that le ads to a predetermined outcome (de Graaf, 2007). According to de Graaf, the individual corrupt official tries to maximize his utility by rationally calculating when to become corrupt if its expected advantages outweigh its expected disadvantages (a combination of possible punishment and the chance of being caught). Rose-Ackeman (1978), posits that public officials are corrupt simply because they perceive that the potential benefits of corruption exceeds that potential costs. See also Klitgaard, (1988), Gambetta, 1993). This theory is supported by works of Hirschi and Gottfredson (1987) Shover and Hochstetler (2006), and Simpson (2009) in their rational choice theories on white-collar crimes. The rational choice theory, unlike others concentrates on a specific situation of an agent who calculates the pros and cons ignoring the larger social context that breeds corruption. Its focus on the officials calculation of the ensuing trade-off as a motivation leaves a gapping question of why some officials especially in the Western countries are not corrupt.The Bad Apple (Anomie) Theory This theory also looks at the level of an individual for the causal effect of corruption. Most studies on

Causes of Software Project Failure

Causes of Softw be pop the question Failure tout ensemble fortunate softw be acoustic fancyions start with the premise that the end dissolving agent will be victoryful. The proprietor of the rove initial destruction is to deliver on time and on budget. Although these are the primary focus when the support begins, yet is it not more classical that the assure deliver tangible business and consumer results? A roll manager must take both the customer and the vomit into consideration when performing a software project. Time, thought and much consideration (focus) must be the aim of the project from beginning until completion of the software project. These are primary keys to a projects supremacy. on that point are many keys that ensure the success of a project many will become familiar to the reader throughout the reading of this paper. Business drivers such as problems or opportunities that maybe encountered in the beginning and throughout the completion of the project a re criteria used to monetary standard the benefits of the project. These drivers should be the primary focus when scoping the project and setting the goals of the project. All projects begin with goals in the order of priority directly related to and supported by the business goals. Target goals are put into lay out to ensure the project meets the specified time and does not deviate more than those allowable in project plan. The customer and the project planner must be in complete agreement on the goal and anticipation of the project before the project begins. An understanding of what the customer expects the success of the project to look the likes of and what measurements will be considered to determine the desired outcome of the project to the customers satisfactions are critical points when the project is started. These issues should be easily unders in additiond by all concerned. A successful project must first be specify. Question, how do we define the success of a software project? We could begin by looking at meeting desired apostrophize, schedule, and scope objectives. Was the projects completion date met? Was it within budget guidelines and did it meet the desired specifications? Software project success has often been delimit in ways that are measured the day the project was finished. This is not always the case. Some projects exceed the specified date originally set forth at the forefront of the project. This does not mean that the project was a peter outure be eccentric of the time constraints. many projects require more testing than was originally set forth at the start of the project or more funds that are necessary to ensure the project is a success. One example is the Sydney Opera House (Dun throw out, W.R.), that cost sixteen times as much to build and to a faultk four times as long to complete as the original estimates. Although thought to be a project management disaster ending up producing an enduring and inspiring civic symbol. Wou ld this constitute as a project hardship? Project success depends on a combination of product success and project management success. Many project owners define the success of the project by the time of completion. If the project was completed in the specified time it was a success. Ask yourself this question if the project was completed early or a day or twain late with all specifications met did you give way a success software project? Or if it was completed on time with continual adjustments after completion, is this a successful project? A project must follow a completion milestone that should allow for each step of the project to fall within specification. All software project should include modification allowances that provide for added research should the project require it.Literature ReviewSoftware bereavement stomach be delineate as the occurrence of either deficient functionality, where the program fails to perform a required function, or deficient performance, wher e the program performs a required function too slow or in an in adapted manner. (Rutgers Computer Technology Law Journal. Perlman, Daniel T., 1998) We live in a society that depends extensively on computers to accomplish our earthyplace expects everything from monitoring patients in hospitals to monitoring our national defense depends primarily on computer software not failing. Bearing in mind their primal need for computers to function properly, software project failure pass judgment are among the highest across all industries, as yet the number of statistical reports analyzing those Failure are lesser then one would expect.This literature goatvass provides an overview of general literature available on this subject, the main of objectives of the evaluation are to establish why software projects fail and the main reasons a project may fail along with what lessons can be learned to improve software developments in order for them to success in the future. The subject of Sof tware Project Failures is full of books, and papers thatstress Why Software Projects Fail, most of them share numerous characteristics ranging from failure due to incomplete requirements to failure due to an incompetent project manager.Among the studies examining these failures is the 2009 Standish Group sanatorium Report. The report is a collection of data on project failures in the software industry. Its main goal is to make the industry effective and productive and to illustrate ways to improve its success rates and increase the value of the software investments. Their most recent results were promulgated in April, 2009.The introductory statement in CHAOS Report reads The Roman couples of antiquity were very inefficient structures. By modern standards, they used too much stone, and as a result, far too much labor to build. Over the years we have learned to build bridges more efficiently, utilise few materials and less labor to perform the same task. Tom Clancy (The Sum of All Fears) (The Standish Group, 2009)With use of this quote the CHAOS Report suggests that software developers should adopt bridge builders approach of learning from past mistakes. The report explains that the difference between software failures and bridge failures is that when a bridge fails it is investigated and a report is written on the cause of the failure whereas when a software fails the failures are covered up, ignored, and/or rationalized. As a result, we keep making the same mistakes over and over again. (The Standish Group, 2009)The Standish Group investigated the failure and success rates along with the reasons for success and failure. Their study surveyed four focus collections with IT administrators of major companies. The attendees represented a wide variety of industries, including insurance, state and federal government, retail, banking, securities, manufacturing and service. terzetto distinct outcomes, called Resolutions, were what the subsequent report divides pr ojects into. Project Resolution Types 1 (Success), 2 (Challenged), and 3 (Impaired). Resolution Type 1 was when a project was a success it was completed on time and on budget, with all the functionalities and features intact. The projects that fell in this category only amounted to 16.2%.Resolution Type 2 was when a project was completed, however it was over budget or over time, and missing some or all of the functionalities and features that were originally requested. 52.7% of all analyze projects fell into the Resolution Type 2 category. Resolution Type 3 were projects that were abandoned at some point during the development cycle, consequently becoming total losses. A staggering 31.1% of all the projects studied fell into this category.The Standish Group further divided these results by large, medium and small establishments. A large establishment was one with greater than $500 billion dollars in r regularue per year, a medium was defined as having $200 million to $500 million i n yearly r chargeue, and a small was from $100 million to $200 million. However the statistics for failure were equally discouraging in companies of all sizes.The most important aspect of the research is discovering why projects fail. The report isolated that the blossom five factors found in successful projects were user involvement, executive management support, clear statement of requirements, proper planning, and rea comeic expectations. These indicators were extracted from surveyed IT executive managers of their opinions about why projects succeed.Project Success Factors% of Responses1. User Involvement15.90%2. Executive Management Support13.90%3. Clear Statement of Requirements13.00%4. Proper Planning9.60%5. Realistic Expectations8.20%6. smaller Project Milestones7.70%7. Competent rung7.20%8. Ownership5.30%9. Clear Vision Objectives2.90%10. Hard-Working, Focused Staff2.40%Other13.90%The top factors found in Challenged projects were lack of user input, incomplete requiremen ts and specifications, changing requirements and specifications, lack of executive support, and technical incompetence. The list of top indicators factors found in Failed projects were incomplete requirements, lack of user involvement, lack of resources, unrealistic expectations, lace of executive support, changing requirements and specifications, lack of planning, didnt need it any longer, lack of IT management, and technical illiteracy.Project Challenged Factors% of Responses1. lose of User Input12.80%2. Incomplete Requirements Specifications12.30%3. Changing Requirements Specifications11.80%4. Lack of Executive Support7.50%5. Technology Incompetence7.00%6. Lack of Resources6.40%7. Unrealistic Expectations5.90%8. Unclear Objectives5.30%9. Unrealistic Time Frames4.30%10. New Technology3.70%Other23.00%The Standish group report conclude that projects succeed because of executive support, user involvement, experience project manager, clear business objectives, minimized scope, stan dard software infrastructure, firm basic requirements, formal methodology, and reliable estimates. The main causes of IT project failure were lack of clear interrelate between the project and the organizations key strategic priorities, including agreed measures of success lack of clear senior management and Official ownership and leadership lack of sufficient data lack of effective engagement with stakeholders lack of skills and proven approach to project management and risk management along with lack of effective project team integration between clients, the supplier team and the supply chain. Causes of failure could also be the result of the problem not being properly defined they may have developed the right solution to the wrong problem. This is best addressed by trying to understand the reason for doing the job.The CHAOS Report does have its own shortcomings. Its measures of success are relatively narrow it only measures success by examining whether a project was completed on time and on budget. The Standish group does not include measures of quality, risk, and customer satisfaction. Nevertheless, the CHAOS Report endures as an important measure for the software despite limited standards of measurement and limiting sources to interviews with executives.There are several other studies on statistics over IT project failure rates which mainly concur with the overall picture of the IT industry that the CHAOS Report provides. In 1997, a study conducted by KPMG Canada, reviewed 176 projects. Their findings determined that over 60% of projects failed to meet their sponsors expectations. A staggering 75% missed their deadline by 30% or more, and over half substantially exceeded their budgets. The main causes for project failure that were identified were poor project planning, specifically, inadequate risk management and a weak project plan weak business case and lack of top management involvement and support. In September 2000, the Gartner Group surveyed 1375 re spondents through interviews. (Gardner, 2010) The study indicated that roughly 40 per centum of all IT projects fail to meet business requirements. In a more recent survey, the Aberdeen Group claimed 90 part of projects came in late, while 30 percent were simply cancelled before the deadline. (Booth, R., 2000)According to Tom Carlos in his article Reasons Why Projects Fail gather major reasons ranging from simple to complex project, The most common reasons for failure found in the list include abjectly managed Inadequate or vague requirements Undefined objectives and goals Lack of management commitment Poorly defined roles and responsibilities Stakeholder conflict Team weaknesses Lack of user input Scope creep No change control process Meeting end user expectations Poor communication Lack of a solid project plan Lack of organisational support Centralised proactive management initiatives to combat project risk opening management of budget resources Provides universal templates a nd documentation Unrealistic timeframes and tasks Competing priorities Poor communication Insufficient resources (funding and personnel) Business politics Overruns of schedule and cost Estimates for cost and schedule are erroneous Lack of prioritisation and project portfolio management Scope creep No change control process Meeting end user expectations Ignoring project ideal signs Inadequate testing processes Bad decisionsThe first 10 failure in the list focus strictly on software requirements where in the requirements are defined user input, stakeholders, communication.Data and HypothesesWhen we look at the success or failure of a software project we must also analyze other areas that can have an impact on the project. A review of the Business Analysis Benchmark gives the project owner and the customer a clear understanding of the organizations maturity date in requirements definition and with management expectation of the project outcome. (IAG Consulting. Ellis, E., 2009) Findin gs in this analysis showed that requirements maturity has a strong positive correlation to every major measure of development efficiency assessed. It can be a strong motivator in the success of the project. Based upon time performance, budget performance, function performance, each can be a fundamental point in project success when there is an increase in these areas. The project owner must have a clear vision/goal to prepare for success. Failure can become apparent in many ways, i.e. changing the vision in the middle of the project, disputes on the primary focus, expectations that are beyond project scope, unreliable or not enough resources to maintain project direction and possibly the most valuable to the success of the project is good leadership. An article titled, If Software Quality is so Important, Why is it So Often Neglected? (Sassenburg, H., 2006), a great title for this literature review research. This article further explores the Standish Groups CHAOS Report with a great quote, Software Crisis has not yet reached the turning point. It gives the reader a good statistical percentage, single 28% of software projects succeed these days, down from 34% a year or two ago. Outright failures projects cancelled before completion are up from 15% to 18%. The remaining 51% of software projects are seriously late, over budget and absent features previously expected. As the study reviews this article a denudation is made based upon the research that includes how the cost is distributed. The designer allows certain percentages for each area of the project phase. In the analyze segment of the project it is projected that 10% will be utilized. Design phase will encompass about 15% while the realization and testing will average the remaining percentage. Many projects exceed the budgeted percentage and allotted funds will be taken from one phase and move over to the phase in need. This can at times cause the project to slow in progress or be placed in a temporary s tate or even placed on hold. The end or mid-result can be the determinant of a number of factors that are evaluated to determine how to complete a software project. The CHAOS Report gives unique information regarding how much is spent on IT application development, $250 billion each year on IT application development which equates to approximately 175,000 projects. A large company can spend anywhere from $2,322,000 to develop a project. Medium companies can spend $1,331,000 and a small company can even spend $434,000 to develop a software project. It has also been determined that many of these projects regardless the cost will fail. Hence CHAOS, therefore no longer can one speak the trio monkeys, hear no failure, see no failure, speak no failure.In the article, Project Management Practices The Criteria for Success or Failure, (OW, S. H., Harzadeh, I.) list the top four factors that contribute to a projects success are, user involvement, executive management support, clear statemen t of requirements and proper planning. This article also explores how a project fails the main reason for failure is listed as, the inabilities of project owners to plan and estimate correctly, or fail to implement the tasks according to plan or simply failure causes by human factor. The Standish Group has estimated that American companies spend at least $81 billion for cancelled software projects. Also, that another $59 million to complete a project that has exceeded budgeted plans. It has been estimated that only 16.2% of software projects were completed on time and on budget. Only 9% of this estimation is for larger companies that have a successful project finished on time and on budget. On occasion these are simply a fraction of the original requirements. Scary? On another scale, Smaller companies do much better. A total of 78.4% of their software projects will get deployed with at least 74.2% of their original features and functions.The study determined that the most projects, 37.1% were impaired and afterward cancelled in medium companies, compared to 29.5% in large companies and 21.6% in small companies. Many software project failures are due to cost and time overruns which result in the restart of the project. These causes the project to go over budget and exceed time requirements set forth in the original software project plan. With the three major elements for a project in place, (user involvement, executive management support, and a clear statement of requirements), there is a much greater chance that the project will be a success. Without these three elements the chance for failure increases. In the project management fitcard there are several surveys in which to score whether the project is a success or a failure. A survey list reasons most people give, regardless the type of business for failed or mischievously managed Projects. This score card also list the cost of a failed project when poorly managed. An article in the datacenter journal, fac ing IT Project Failures, explains that the failure of an IT project as others discoveries disclose, can simply mean that the project has gone over budget by a certain percentage, that completion of the project was delayed beyond a certain point or that the business failed to reap a certain return on investment from its project. The CHAOS report indicates that project success rates have increased to 34 percent of all projects. This percent is 100% more from the success rate found in the first study in 1994. A decline in project failure to 15% of all projects is a great improvement over the 31% failure rate account in 1994. In this current survey a total of 51% of all projects were over the specified time required, over budget or lacking features and requirements.

Iconoclasm And Iconophilia In Islam Religion Essay

Iconoclasm And Iconophilia In Islam Religion EssayIntroductionThe purpose of this short audition is to examine Iconoclasm and Iconophilia within the Moslem context. First, the two terms will be fixated, elucidating their meaning by also drawing upon other linking terminologies. Second, references from customs dutyal sources, al-Quran and hadith (Hadith) will be controverted to high glisten the debates on figural representation from a theological perspective. In relation to this, the next part will briefly discuss the umbrella terms Moslem Iconoclasm or Muslim Iconoclasm and focus on the problematic aspects of such(prenominal) labelling. Subsequently, the last part will contextualise altogether the preceding arguments to study and debate the Taliban destruction of the Buddhas of Bamyan in 21st Century. In the end pertinent conclusions will be drawn.DefinitionsThe point of departure for this try on will be to define the two terms Iconoclasm and Iconophilia and elucidate the d uality of these concepts. Moreover, some of the terms bloked and derived from these two concepts will also be highlighted. check to wordiq1, an icon derived from Greek word, , eikon which means an painting. It is delineate as an artistic visual representation or symbol of any function considered holy and divine, such as divinity, saints or deities. A painting, sculpture as well as a mosaic classifies as an icon. The same source2defines the word iconoclasm, as literally destructing religious icons heavenly monuments and images, for religious or semipolitical motives. This is primarily an put through done by a person who attacks, breaks and destroys sacred monuments and religious images. Such people are called iconoclasts. This term also refers to a person who has a nuisance for established religious institutions and dogmas and images for religious veneration.gods-bull-breaking.gif An Image of an unorthodox man with a hammer, breaking a bull icon into pieces. tact of Word Inf o image Copyright, 2006.As per contra, those individuals who venerate or revere any religious images are called iconodules. In addition, this is linked to the second term in discussion, Iconophilia. An iconophile, is understood as a connotation of images, pictures, engravings, illustrations on books or manuscripts. A person who has a fondness of such images and objects and one who loves these icons, illustrations and pictures is defined as an iconophilist or an iconophil.Moreover, someone who produces such images and natural icons is referred to as an Iconoplast3.With an understanding of the key terms in question, the next part of this essay will discuss the act of destroying cultural and religious icons for obtaining snarfion and conversely by contra the act of making figural representation in light of Muslim tradition. The following part of the essay will first shed light on references from traditional sources that have been used for supporting prohibition of figural representa tion in Islam.Instruction for Image prohibition in light of Quran and Sunnah (Hadith)In QuranIn the Quran, although thither is no specific mention of figural representation/ painting, there are verses which indicate prohibition of idolatry, such as in the following verse, chapter 5, verse 90 O ye who believe Intoxicants and gambling, (dedication of) stones, and (divination by) arrows, are an abomination, of Satans handwork eschew such abomination), that ye may prosper.4Another Surah from the Quran, chapter 21, verses 53-55 statesWhen he state to his father and to his people, What are these images to which ye pay devotion? Said they,We found our fathers serving them. Said he, Both you and your fathers have been in obvious error. This verse can be taken in unlike ways. One possible interpretation is that it forbids false idols, or another interpretation could be that it indicates that any form of imagery of idol or his divine nature is condemned and prohibited. Therefore, this vers e has had many interpretations done by theologisers, who have used it to ban the act of drawing, painting as well as sculpting figures5. One may argue that this verse prohibits idolatry as supposed to figural representation.It is commonly argued that the Quran, as compared to the Hadith traditions, is not specific on the motif of figural depiction, however it nonetheless condemns idolatry and uses the Arabic term musawwir (maker of forms, or artist) as an epithet for God (Figural Representatiom of Islamic Art, 2000), due to this sentiment, paintings with figures are made abstract and stylized, moreover, partially as a resultant role of this religious sentiment, many ensuants of destruction of figurative art took place (Ibid., 2000). Therefore, in the hadith (the recorded sayings) of the vaticinator Muhammad, there are much clearer references to the prohibition of figural representation and painting. It is these hadith which are utilized by the theologians to support and elaborat e on the meaning and intent of the above Quranic verse, and, it is from them that many Muslims derive legitimacy for their arguments against figural representation.According to one of the related hadiths to this matter, Aisha, the wife of the illusionist reported that on seeing a curtain embellished with pictures of animals, the Prophet was enraged and tore the cloth to pieces, declaring, The makers of these pictures will be punished on the daytime of Resurrection, and it will be said to them, Give life to what you have created. The Prophet added, The Angels of (Mercy) do not enter a house in which there are pictures (of animals). Bukhari, Volume 7, Book 62110.6Another source presents additional response by Prophet on the same incident saying Such people as paint these pictures will receive the severest punishment on the Day of Resurrection.7On another occasion Muhammad is supposed to have said, Verily the most grievously tormented people on the Day of Resurrection would be the painters of pictures.8As for Iconoclastic activities in early Islamic tradition, there are early accounts of the prophet Muhammads iconoclastic activities, for instance in the ninth-century Book of Idols which narrates that When on the day he conquered Mecca, the Apostle of God appeared before the Kabah, he found the idols arrayed around it. There upon he started to pierce their eyes with the point of his arrow, saying, Truth is come and false-hood is vanished. Verily, falsehood is a thing that vanish-eth (Quran 1781 as narrated in Faris, 1952, p. 27). It was after having said this, that he ordered for the idols to be knocked down and burnt (Ibid.).According to another source, the same incident is narrated As told by Ibn AbbasWhen the Prophet saw pictures in the Kaba, he did not enter it till he ordered them to be erased. When he saw (the pictures of) Ibrahim and Ismail carrying the arrows of divination, he said, May God curse them (i.e. the Quraysh) By God, neither Ibrahim nor Isma il practiced divination by arrows. (Bukhari, Volume 4, Book 55571, as quoted in Kheilen on Iconoclasm).9These hadith are however subject to various interpretations. It can be argued that this tradition prohibits figural representations in scared spaces, not just Kaaba but also in mosques as well, or it may be suggested that Prophet prohibited the specific cult or set of beliefs that these idols presented, that is divination a pre Islamic custom on Mecca.(Ibid.10)http//lexicorient.com/e.o/x/t.gifAccording to one Hadith, the Prophet is also reported to declare that Angels do not enter the house in which there are portrayals or pictures.11. Per contra, one of the oldest chronicles, that of Al-Azraqi, narrates that when the Prophet returned to Mecca victoriously, he found the Kaaba covered with fresco paintings and he ordered that they be effaced but made an exception for one the them, executed on a pillar, which represented Mary and saviour. (Besancon, 2000, P. 78-79). The ambivalence to figuration in textual tradition is argued by many scholars. This is also reiterated in Rubin (1986, p. 97) and Van Reenen, (1990, p. 40) who reiterate the above tradition by arguing that after the conquest of Mecca the prophet ordered the destruction of the paintings of prophets, angels, as well as trees that had decorated the interior of the Kaaba, whilst sparing an image of Jesus and Mary.Rubin (1986) further argues that although there is a general consensus in Hadith of forbidding representations, some interpretations by traditional schools of thought also go so out-of-the-way(prenominal) as to liken artists to polytheists but these proscriptions may have been a used to promote aniconism (the eschewal of figural imagery) along with iconoclasm (the destruction or mutilation of existing figural imagery). However, he states that despite their efforts Islamic art varies to a great extent across different time and places (Ibid., p. 129-131).Albeit contested and varying in form an d interpretation, generally the removal of Meccan Idols in Kaaba upon conquest is deemed very symbolic by Muslims and this event holds great historical importance. It is due to this that generally Muslim societies refrain from figural representations in sacred spaces such as Mosques and Prayer halls. However, this opposition to depiction of living things and figural representation is not based on Quranic references but rather on various traditions present within the Hadith ( run, 2002, p. 643-44).Muslim IconoclasmIn light of these traditional sources and their interpretation, the next part of the essay will briefly elucidate the concept of Islamic Iconoclasm or Muslim Iconoclasm in light of Muslim history. Among Muslims, it is clear and lucid to refrain from producing figures and life-like images of God, his Prophet, figures who are eminent in Islam as well as all living things. Several Classical traditions and religious sources are interpreted in light of prohibition of figural re presentation and from time immemorial these sources are interpreted and used for various religious, as well as political Islamic doctrines. The disdain for figural representation, religious icons and images is often linked to idolatry. In popular publications this is referred to as Islamic Iconoclam and or Muslim Iconoclasm. Note that these terms will be used interchangeably throughout the essay.As noted above, one of the earliest Muslim Iconoclasm was in 630 upon the conquest of Mecca when the deities in Kaaba were destroyed this holds true despite the presence of what may be an apologetic tradition, that Mohammad spared the statues of Mary and Jesus. This incident is also astray linked to the end of the Jahalliyah period in Mecca, and consequent end to idolatry in Arabia.As for the concept of Islamic Iconoclasm, it is contested and argued by many scholars. According to Besancon (2000), Muslim iconoclasm is a result of the absence of a Covenant that is why the Koran does not tak e the trouble to positively prohibit the image. He argues that for Muslims the impression of God is transcendent and beyond human comprehension, it is thus discouraging to any figural and imagery associations (P. 81).Grabar (1975) describes the distinction between Byzantine and Islamic iconoclasm by suggesting that in case of Byzantine, Iconoclasm is usually spelled with a capital I and In Islamic iconoclasm it is spelled with a small i. He argues that such secondary typographical distinction debate differences between a historical moments which are then capitalised later or they refer to an attitude or mode of behaviour, to the affect that he claims that for Islamic iconoclasm it is evidently too common to deserve capitalization(Ibid., p. 45). Such a statement about Islamic iconoclastic acts are devoid of any historical context as it disregards the ample evidence of a tradition of figural representation throughout Muslim art history, and it is this lack of recognition that weste rn authors tend to perceive and associate a long, culturally determined, and unchanging tradition of violent iconoclastic acts within Islamic tradition and Muslim history. (Flood, 2002, p. 641) However, this is not to overlook that in various Muslim denominations there is a continuation of iconoclastic agendas, along with much recent on-going controversy regarding the destruction of Meccan historic buildings(not images) by the Wahhabist authorities who claim that they fear that these buildings were or would become the subject of polytheism and idolatry. (Howden, 2005)According to Kjeilen, this opposition to figural representation and its influence on Muslim iconoclasm have been used many times in Islamic history in order to destroy the representation of gods, divine figures or semi-divine figures of other religions, and the destruction of statues of Buddhas by the Taliban in Afghanistan in 2001 is the modern day exercising of this.The destruction of the Buddha-statues in Afghanista n in 2001The following part of the essay will incorporate the proceeding arguments and analyze the Taliban destruction of Buddha at Bamiyan in 2001, so as to examine iconoclastic events in modern day Islamic state and develop a context to debate the preceding arguments.Dupree (2002) describes the saga of the Bamiyan Buddha destruction at Bamiyan as an aftermath of the debate at Supreme court and amongst its Council of Ministers who ordered Mullah Omar, to carry out investigation with the department of religious police (The Ministry for the Prevention of Vice and the forwarding of Virtue) regarding the appropriateness of the National Museums holdings in Afghanistan. It was following these orders that incorporation of Shariah Law was done in order to carry out, what may be suggested here, a political exploitation. The following events then unfolded leading to the total destruction as narrated by Dupree (2002) specific orders were given to destroy any offending objects in the museum. A couple on of weeks later, on the 26th of February, Mullah Omar gave an edict that mandated the destruction of all non-Islamic objects and subsequently on March 8 and 9th, the Bamiyan Buddhas were dynamited (Dupree, 2002, p. 986)taliban-2.jpg Bamiyan Buddha Statue before and after destruction by the Taliban. Image Courtesy of Fortunecity12Biggs (2003) claims that this destruction of the Bamiyan Buddhas in 2001 is a reminder that monotheism has its roots in the persecution of idolaters, and that the cultural expression of this violence was and remains acts of iconoclasm, however, his argument clearly falls into the frame of what Flood (2002) suggests as an ahistorical paradigm. Floods response to such interpretations is that they overlook the coexistence between the Muslim population and the Buddhas for over a millennium previous to the destruction by Taliban (King, 1985, as quoted in Flood, 2002, p. 654)Bamian1.jpg A general view of the alcoves where the Buddha statues stood befor e the destruction, Image Courtesy of Embassy of Afghanistan13According to Floods thesis, many of Talibans own declarations in regards to Buddhas indicate that their destruction was a result of a political motive as supposed to theological, because since the statues were already faceless above chin level, then they would be meaningless in context of Islamic medieval iconoclasm (Flood, 2002, p. 651-655).In addition to this Meskell (2002, p. 562) argue that the causal factors of this cultural heritage destruction is varying. He suggests that it could be due to the Taliban clerics opposition to the pre-Islamic figures that were displayed in the Kabul museum or it may have been due to a visit by Italian Buddhists, the interest of UNESCO in preserving the statues paired with foreign delegation wanting to offer coin to preserve these ancient work when millions of Afghan died of starvation (p. 563). Others sources cite various factors such as military operations, internal politics and inte rnational relationships (Gamboni 2001).buddha_image.jpg Faceless Buddha statues, prior to Taliban destruction. Image courtesy of www.deeshaa.orgConclusion While a full discussion of this topic, incorporating a comprehensive argument on the theological sources, the contested debate on what qualifies as Islamic or Muslim Iconoclasm and the sectarian disputes between factions of different groups of Muslims lies beyond the scope of this short essay. It has nonetheless highlighted that opposition to figural representation is not based on the Quran, but rather on various traditions that are found within Hadith and that these interpretations are subject to interpretation and being employ for reasons other than theological. The arguments in this essay resonate with Floods (2002) understanding that the destruction of Budhaa was more political and a result of a power autonomy monopoly rather than theologian factor, and that it may have amounted to provoked affirmation of sovereignty by the T alibans, not just upon their territory and the people there but also upon the values that they upheld. This essay intended to use the destruction of Buddhas as an example, to highlight the political aspects of Iconoclastic moments and elucidate that what is largely conceived as a theological impulse is not a timeless response to prohibition of figuration but that it may have been a cultural, social and political discourse of image representation at a extra moment in history.

Essay --

The first poem that I chose was by the poet Julia Alvarez titled Queens, 1963 this told the story of a family that has moved into in Queens, NY. The inditer and narrator of this story is from the Dominican Republic. One year has passed for the family to finally settle into the neighborhood. This time an African American family has moved right-hand(a) across the street. The early days girl notices how her neighbors have not treated this family with kindness and respect. More police have been seen patrolling through the neighborhood. When reading this poem my initial thoughts were that Queens, 1963 describes the American peoples behavior towards foreigners and their reactions. Alvarez states, Mr. Scott, the retired plumber, and his decease Midwestern wife, considered moving back home, where white and black got along by staying where they belonged. (Alvarez, pp 952) It will take another year and another family that will move into their neighborhood, than erst the African American f amily settles in another family will be placed under the same scrutiny. The narrator also discusses approximately a girl about the same age as her would have never been the right kind of American. Minorities much(prenominal) as the African Americans, Dominican Americans and any other ethnicity that came to America were looked right under the microscope. This perplexed me I do not understand why they are treated unfairly by the True Americans. There is no such thing as True Americans and that this poem definitely targeted its audience through racial discrimination rather than cultural changes within a neighborhood in Queens, NY. Another Poet had a much refined and unique style of another part of New York City, he is one of my favorite poets Langston Hughes. The poem that I chos... ...ability to write out whatever she desires definitely has been therapeutic for her. I believe that my Dad knew all along that Rabia had amazing writing ability. The success that she has had with her wr iting will only when grow more and more. As for this poem it shows how my dad truly was angel in a humans body. He has been watching over Rabia and I as well as my family. Though the trials of life havent come very easy I am sure he is proud to see that my sister has open up something in life that she enjoys. I love him and my mom and my family and friends. Thank you Rabia for creation the best sister a little brother can have. Thank you for being someone I can look up to. You have been an amazing influence and role model to me. You have endured so much and I didnt have it away as much pain as you because I was so young. Your an amazing sister and I know you will do great things.

Women in Buddhism Essay -- Religion Religious Philosophy Essays

Women in Buddhism The division of women in religion, especially eastern religions,is a strange one. Western religions be plumb straightforward virtually a womens place. For example, most Western religions(excluding the Roman Catholic Church) lease women in leadershiproles within the religious community. Judaism allows women rabbis,most Christian religions allow women ministers, and even Islam,which does non allow women mullah, have had many influential femalesufis throughout Islamic history. Women have had comparable roles in Eastern religion. However,the big divagation in Eastern religion is in the philosophical orscriptural attitude towards women versus the actual, everydayrole of women. According to the Bhagavad Gita, ...those who take shelter inMe, though they be of set out birth -- women, vaisyas (merchants), aswell as sudras (workers) -- can approach the supreme destination.(Bhagavad Gita, 932) This places women in a spiritual rolesimilar to that of men. However, because of the place of women intraditional Indian society, women are judgement to be inferior. Thisis clearly expressed in the Gita in a number of chapters. Womenare thought to be fly-by-night and stupid, easily corrupted(140), and a hindrance to men on the path to liberation (1611-12). The Manu-samhita, a Hindu book that lays down the justness of thehuman race, explains that women should not be faden freedom andshould be protected at all times. According to Swami Prabhupada,the leader of the Krishna Consciousness movement, That does notmean that women are to be kept as slaves, but they are likechildren. Children are not given freedom, but that does not meanthey are kept as... ...untries, such as Japan, Korea andIndia, set more equality towards women, female religiousteachers should become much more common. This may be just whatBuddhism needs to shake it from its lethargy, and give it a pushof much needed energy. As it stands now, the United S tates hasbecome the spiritual center for Buddhism, a fact that has a lot todo with the role of women in these traditions. workings CITEDA.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, trans. Bhagavad Gita As It Is. New York Collier Books, 1972.Bays, Gwendolyn, trans. The Lalitavistara Sutra. Berkeley, CA Dharma Publishing, 1983.Coomaraswamy, Ananda. Buddha and the Gospel of Buddhism. Secaucus, NJ Citadel Press, 1988.Tworkow, Helen. Butsumon. Spring 1990. San Francisco Buddhist Bookstore and Buddhist Churches of America. Women in Buddhism seek -- Religion Religious Philosophy EssaysWomen in Buddhism The role of women in religion, especially Eastern religions,is a strange one. Western religions are fairly straightforwardabout a womens place. For example, most Western religions(excluding the Roman Catholic Church) allow women in leadershiproles within the religious community. Judaism allows women rabbis,most Christian reli gions allow women ministers, and even Islam,which does not allow women mullah, have had many influential femalesufis throughout Islamic history. Women have had similar roles in Eastern religion. However,the big difference in Eastern religion is in the philosophical orscriptural attitude towards women versus the actual, everydayrole of women. According to the Bhagavad Gita, ...those who take shelter inMe, though they be of lower birth -- women, vaisyas (merchants), aswell as sudras (workers) -- can approach the supreme destination.(Bhagavad Gita, 932) This places women in a spiritual rolesimilar to that of men. However, because of the place of women intraditional Indian society, women are thought to be inferior. Thisis clearly expressed in the Gita in a number of chapters. Womenare thought to be untrustworthy and stupid, easily corrupted(140), and a hindrance to men on the path to liberation (1611-12). The Manu-samhita, a Hindu book that lays down the law of th ehuman race, explains that women should not be given freedom andshould be protected at all times. According to Swami Prabhupada,the leader of the Krishna Consciousness movement, That does notmean that women are to be kept as slaves, but they are likechildren. Children are not given freedom, but that does not meanthey are kept as... ...untries, such as Japan, Korea andIndia, develop more equality towards women, female religiousteachers should become much more common. This may be just whatBuddhism needs to shake it from its lethargy, and give it a boostof much needed energy. As it stands now, the United States hasbecome the spiritual center for Buddhism, a fact that has a lot todo with the role of women in these traditions. WORKS CITEDA.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, trans. Bhagavad Gita As It Is. New York Collier Books, 1972.Bays, Gwendolyn, trans. The Lalitavistara Sutra. Berkeley, CA Dharma Publishing, 1983.Coomaraswamy, Ananda. Budd ha and the Gospel of Buddhism. Secaucus, NJ Citadel Press, 1988.Tworkow, Helen. Butsumon. Spring 1990. San Francisco Buddhist Bookstore and Buddhist Churches of America.